CABINET ORGAN — Free Reeds. America. One of the names by which the reed organ is known.

CABINET ORGAN — Beating Reed. Europe. An instrument of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. The name was applied to a premature device, within the case of which was a cabinet of drawers and a cupboard. One had a small removable spinet, which could be played either in its place or after removal.

CALASCIONE — Plucked Strings. Italy. This belonged properly to Italy. The body was that of the ordinary lute, but with a smaller neck. It was equipped with two or three gut strings, and was plucked sometimes with a plectrum, sometimes with the fingers. It greatly resembles the Egyptian nefir. Its use began to be discontinued in the Eighteenth Century. See lute.

CALLIOPE—Vertical Flute. American. This was invented by J. C. Stoddart, of Worcester, Mass., who received a patent for the same Oct. 9, 1855. This far from artistic instrument was suggested to the inventor by the steam whistles which herald the approach of a locomotive, or announce the dinner-hour in a factory. With unconscious irony, this remarkable device was given the name of the muse of epic poetry, famed for the sweetness of her voice. Stoddart conceived that these whistles could be so arranged that when the steam impinged against their thin edges the diatonic scale would be produced. Over the top of a steam chest was arranged, according to the number of whistles, valve chambers having double poppet valves. A small stem passed from each of the valves through the chamber to the outside, by means of which the valve could be opened upon a slight pressure. On each valve was placed a whistle that had its own separate tone, being of different diameter and depth of bell. The valves were lifted by means of pins placed in a revolving cylinder, and thus the tones were produced. The principle is similar to that of the music box, and the tones in the calliope may be of different lengths, as whole, half, quarter, eighth and dotted notes. This is due to the pins being of different shapes. A keyboard was a later addition. The first calliope was placed on board a small steamer on the Hudson River, with a view to attracting the public, and admirably fulfilled its mission.

CAMBREH — See halam.

CANE FLUTE — Vertical Flute. Europe. A walking-stick, the lower part being solid. Belongs to the Eighteenth and the early Nineteenth Centuries. The upper part is bored in a manner similar to whistle flutes.

CANE VIOLIN — Bowed. Europe. A narrow violin of small size made in imitation of a walking-stick, and furnished with an ornamented handle. When not in use, the small bow slips within the stick, and a cover conceals the whole. This novelty is made in Germany. See violin.

CARILLON — French term for the Glockenspiel, which see.

CASTANETS — Sonorous Substances. Moorish and Spanish. Spoon-shaped discs of wood made originally from the Spanish chestnut (castano). Two of them are hinged together by a cord, which passes over the thumb and first finger of the hand. The discs are struck together by the other fingers, and produce a hollow click. A pair is held in each hand. Castanets accompany the native Spanish and Moorish dances. They are employed in orchestras now for the accompaniment of any dance music, but are played by the performer upon another instrument, and are in consequence not held in the hand. A flat piece of wood to which is attached a pair of castanets is shaken when only a few measures require them. The drummer in military bands is sometimes called upon to use his sticks to strike a frame in which are fastened castanets.

CAVACO — Plucked Strings. Europe. This instrument is of the guitar family and has a small round or oval body, often formed of a gourd. Its home is Italy and Spain. The strings are of silk, wire or gut, and are attached to a small bridge from which they pass to the pegs at the end of the neck. The head is flat.

CAVONTO — Plucked Strings. Greece. A member of the mandolin family found in Greece, having a pear-shaped body, with a truncated base and a long neck. It is strung with wire strings.

CELESTA — Sonorous Substances. Europe. This instrument, the invention of a Frenchman, M. Auguste Mustel, of Paris, in 1886, was used by French composers and displaced the Glockenspiel or carillon in the orchestra. The celesta possesses a keyboard with a compass of five octaves. from the C below middle C. Bars of steel, to each end of which a brass block is soldered, are suspended over resonating boxes of wood, and are struck by hammers. The action is similar to that of the pianoforte. The resulting tone is clear and sweet. Leoncavallo and Puccini employ the celesta, and Tschaikowsky is one of the few foreign composers who have recognized it. It has a part in the " Danse de la Fee Dragιe."

CEMBAL D' AMORE — Struck Strings. Europe. This instrument, invented by Gottfried Silbermann, of Freiburg, in the early Eighteenth Century was an attempt to improve upon the meager and expressionless voice of the harpsichord. The cembal d'amore did not belong to the harpsichord family, but was a revival of the principle of the clavichord, which had passed from general use. The tone of the new instrument, which was in reality a double clavichord, was not a complete success. However, it was another step towards the pianoforte. The strings doubled in length those of the clavichord, and passed over two bridges instead of one. The action was the same as that of the older instrument, but the tangents struck midway between the bridges, and both sections were allowed to vibrate. As the pressure was removed from the key lever, the tangent fell away from the string, which resumed a position upon a band of cloth which damped the vibrations. Here it remained in rest until used again. The case resembled that of the spinet, though the elongation was to the left of the performer. See clavichord.

CERVELAS — See wurst fagott.

CHABBABEH — Vertical Flute. Persia. The name applies to a vertical flute about a foot in length, and having six or more side holes.

CHA-CHIAO — See la-pa.

CHALUMEAU -- Single-Beating Reed. Europe. This instrument was last called for in the orchestra by Gluck in the early Eighteenth Century. Its history is indistinct, as the ancient musical writers seldom mention it, doubtless from the fact that it was used exclusively by the peasantry. The name is easily confused with that of the schalmey, the antitype of the oboe, but the two instruments were greatly dissimilar. It had a cylindrical tube of wood or reed, in which the single-beating reed was placed. The number of finger-holes varied. When it was overblown, the fundamental scale was repeated a twelfth higher. Double chalumeaus, with a common mouthpiece placed in a block of wood, were used. The instrument was a forerunner of the clarinet.

CHANG-GON — Vibrating Membranes. Korea. This drum has a shell shaped like a dumb-bell, and covered with heads of skin, the projecting edges being laced together with heavy cord. One end is beaten with the fingers, the other with a stick. A good player can change the tone by beating first on the side, then on the middle, and finally midway between. In playing the 'wrists are used as well as the fingers.

CHAPEAU CHINOIS — See schellenbaum.

CHARP - Sonorous Substances. Siam. These cymbals are two brass discs with broad flat edges, and have a boss in the center. See cymbals.

CHEBEB or DJOUWAK — Vertical Flute. Algeria. Vertical flute of varying lengths and having finger-holes. CHEKARA — See sarangi.

CHENG — Free Reed. China. A bowl-shaped reservoir fitted in one side with a crook mouthpiece. Seventeen bamboo pipes varying in lengths are inserted in the top, and arranged to simulate the tail of the phoenix. Each pipe has a free reed, and a hole which must be closed before a sound will be made. The cheng first suggested the reed organ.

CHI — Vertical Flute. Japan. A bamboo flute with seven holes. First made about 1000 B. C. It has never been much used, possibly because its plaintive tones too greatly resemble crying.

CH'IH — Transverse Flute. China. A transverse flute of bamboo measuring about fourteen inches in length. It was formerly blown at the middle. The number of holes varied between six and ten, with occasionally more. It has gradually become obsolete, its place being filled by the simpler instruments.

CHIKU-NO-KOTO — Plucked Strings. Japan. A koto of thirteen strings. Lt is played with a bamboo plectrum. See koto.

CH'IN — Plucked Strings. China. This is one of the most ancient of Chinese instruments, and embodies many poetical allusions. The name suggests restriction or prohibition, because its influence was supposed to check the evil passions, rectify the heart, and guide aright the actions of the body. The dimensions, form, number of strings, and whatever was connected with this interesting instrument found their principle in nature. It measured 366-100 of an inch in width, because a year contains a maximum of 366 days. The number of strings was five, because of the five elements. The upper part was made round to represent the firmament, the bottom flat to represent the ground. All these rules are not strictly adhered to in the present-day ch'in. The strings have come to be seven in number. They pass over a bridge near the wide end and thence through the board, and are tightened with nuts below. At the smaller end they are tightened with pegs. The ch'in is most difficult to play upon.

CHINCHICHI -- Plucked Strings. Japan. A circular brass gong a few inches in diameter, and struck with a wooden beater. Used by mendicant priests in their chants.

CH'ING — See shun.

CHING --- Sonorous Substances. Siam. Two brass discs with flat edges and conical centers. See cymbals.

CH'IN-SIAN — Vibrating Membranes. China. A tambourine with a circular frame of wood, and heads of snake skin. Metal discs are inserted in the sides.

CHIRULA — Vertical Flute. Europe. Another name for galoubet. See galoubet.

CHITARRA BATTENTE — Plucked strings. Italy. One of the guitar family, which has been used in Tuscany for several centuries. The body is rather deep, and has sides slightly incurved. The instrument has a length of nearly three feet. The strings are of metal, are tuned in pairs, and are struck with a short plectrum, generally of wood or bone.

CHITARRONE — Plucked Strings. Europe. This was a theorbo with an exceedingly long neck. The Chitarrone was fitted with wire instead of gut strings, and had two peg boxes, the upper carrying eight strings and the lower twelve. The instrument was used in the orchestra as early as 1607. Two were employed in Monteverde's opera " Orfeo."

CHITTIKA — See kurtar.

CHORUS -- See tromba marina.

CHROTTA — See crwth.

CHOTNITCHIYEROG — See Russian Horn.

CHU -- Sonorous Substances. China. The body re sembles a square box, and is larger at the top than at the bottom. A hammer in the middle of the box is so contrived as to move to the right and left, striking the sides. In one side is a hole for the passage of the hand to manipulate the hammer.

CITHARA — See kithara.

CITHER Or CITTERN — Plucked Strings. Europe. The former is the modern spelling, the latter that employed from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries. It is shaped like the lute, the back, however, being flat instead of pear-shaped, and its strings of wire, which with the fact that the lute strings are plucked with the fingers and the cither strings with a plectrum, constitutes the principal difference between the two. It has any number of strings, from four pairs to perhaps fourteen. The name, English Guitar, was given to the cither during the Eighteenth Century, when that instrument was very' popular in England.

CITTERN -- See cither.

CLAPPERS— Sonorous Substances. Pieces of wood, bone or metal held between the fingers and struck together rhythmically. They have been found in Egyptian tombs and are pictured in Assyrian bas-reliefs.

CLARINET — Single-beating reed. Europe. A modification of the medieval shawm admitted into the orchestra about 1775. Since then it has been improved and has grown to great importance. It consists of a cylindrical tube ending in a flaring bell. It is fitted with a single-beating reed mouthpiece and is furnished with eighteen side holes, nine of which are covered by keys and nine by the fingers. The lowest tone which it is capable of producing is E, below Middle C, the compass extending to C, three octaves above it. The clarinet is considered the most expressive of the wood-winds, because it is capable of almost perfect gradations in the power of its tones. Its voice is rich and full, although the extremely high tones are too piercing for frequent use. Beethoven, Schubert, Weber, Mendelssohn, Rossini, Wagner and Tschaikowsky have employed it freely.

CLAVICHORD — Struck Strings. Europe. Called "the comforter of the sufferer, and the sympathizing friend of cheerfulness," by Koch in his musical lexicon, the clavichord is to be considered the direct predecessor of the pianoforte. The strings were set in motion not by hammers but by tangents or wedges of brass about an inch in height and an eighth of an inch broad at the top. The case was oblong, resembling that of the early square piano-fortes. The general direction of the strings followed the length of the case, but at the right of the performer they passed over a curved bridge which definitely determined their direction and transmitted their vibrations to the sounding board.

In the older clavichords one string, or set of strings, was made to serve in producing two or more tones and the tangents did a double duty by dividing the strings into unequal parts and by causing them to vibrate. A narrow cloth band was interlaced among the wires, allowing only the desired section of the strings to vibrate until the pressure was removed from the key, when the entire length was damped. When supplied with one string to several tones clavichords were called "gebunden" or fretted. When supplied with a string to each key the adjective "bundfree" (unfretted) was applied. The system of the tangents was not unlike that of the bridges on the monochord of Pythagoras. In fact, the name monochord is early found applied to an instrument in other respects resembling the clavichord and the generally accepted idea is that the latter was evolved from a grouping of several monochords in a case having a keyboard attached. When this took place is not to be definitely stated, but let us say not before the middle of the fourteenth century, as in 1323 Jean de Muris enumerates the musical instruments in use at the time, not mentioning the clavichord, but describing the monochord in its measuring or intervals.

Handel, Scarlatti, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and Bach looked with favor upon the clavichord. In the time of Mozart two of them were often admitted into the orchestra, the director playing upon one. It was the most expressive keyboard instrument ever known. The action of the tangent upon the string was discernible to a perfect touch and the slightest deepening or lessening of the pressure upon the key after it had been depressed would produce a change in tone.

Writers of all periods of its use have been loud in their praises and the Germans especially clung to it when the louder-voiced instruments appeared. Even the piano-forte, which in its modern form seems the king of its kind, in the eighteenth century could not successfully bear a comparison with its ancestor. A critic of Leipsic in 1782 said that upon the pianoforte "the heart cannot express itself, no picture can be completely produced, as light and shade cannot be expressed ; only a clearly defined sketch can be made. . . The clavichord, however, stands highest of all. Although on account of its nature excluded from the concert hall, it is the companion of the recluse. Here I can reproduce the feelings of my heart and fully express them. In order to judge a virtuoso one must listen to him while at the clavichord, not at the pianoforte."

The oldest clavichord known to exist is at the Metropolitan Museum of Art and was made in 1537 by Alex. Trasontinus. It has a compass of thirty-six notes. The instruments were made until the nineteenth century and had more than double this compass.

CLAVICTHERIUM Or CLAVICEMBALO VERTICALE-Plucked Strings. Europe. It was originally designed to be played upon a table, and was similar to a spinet. The case was three-cornered. Each key commanded a separate string, and in place of the tangents of the clavichord, there were used wooden bars (jacks), having at the upper end a small pointed piece of hard quill, by means of which the strings were set in vibration. In the course of time standards were provided, and the sound board was placed on end. There is a paucity of information concerning this instrument. It is also called the upright harpsichord or spinet, and is spoken of by Virdung (1511).

CLAVICEMBALO VERTICALE — See clavictherium. CLAVIER — See orphica.

CLAVIHARP — Plucked Strings. Europe, Invented in 1815 by Christian Dietz, of Paris. The case was harp-shaped and upright. The strings were of wire. A key-board operated a series of finger-like hooks, which plucked the strings, and produced an effect similar to that of the ordinary harp. Each hook after plucking resumed its position, owing to the leaden weight which was attached to it. One pedal operated an automatic muffling apparatus, another controlled a strip of cloth performing the duties of a damper, and another was connected with a swell shutter.

COLANGEE — Plucked Strings. Africa. An instrument coming from the Soudan, and similar to the wambee. See wambee.

CONCERTINA — Free Reeds. England. Patented by Sir Charles Wheatstone, June 19th, 1829. Lt is hexagonal in shape, with a finger-board at each end between compressible bellows. The air is forced by the bellows against free metallic reeds. The notes placed on the lines of the musical staff are on the side of the instrument touched by the left hand, and those in spaces are played by the right hand. The C's are all marked in red, and the compass is about three and one-half octaves. The method of playing is very easy to learn. When in its glory, concerts were given, and William Cawdell, in 1865, issued a pamphlet extolling it and recommending it for general use. It could render classical music, and instruments of different pitches, such as treble, tenor, baryton and bass when played together were capable of producing rich and powerful effects. Signor Giulio Regondi, who appeared in London in 1865, created a furore with his concertina playing. Cawdell remarks that it would add greatly to the pleasure of traveling to be accompanied by one of them.

CONCH-SHELL TRUMPET — Cup Mouthpiece. A primitive instrument made of a conch-shell through which the performer blew.

CONTRABASS, DOUBLE BASS — Bowed Strings. Europe.

The contrabass derives its name from the manner in which it doubles the part of the violoncellos, the bass of the stringed quartet, and is capable of producing the lowest notes called for in the orchestral scores. It strings are tuned in fourths instead of in fifths, as are the strings of the other stringed instruments. Open they sound G on the lowest line of the bass clef, and D, A and E, below. In order that extra or leger lines need. not be used constantly, the music is written an octave higher than it sounds.

This is the only one of the bowed family in which the individual features of the old viols are retained, the contrabass having the slanting shoulders and flat back of the older instruments. It has undergone but few changes since it was known as the violone, the largest viol. It is said that a small boy was sometimes placed within the body of the violone, where he sang a treble part of the harmony, the player, besides using the bow, singing the bass. The older instruments possessed more strings, the number varying from five to seven. Now a contrabass with three strings finds especial favor in England, where it is tuned in fourths, A, D and G, but in other countries the three strings are sometimes tuned in fifths, sounding an octave below the three upper strings of the cello.

Muted tones are never found in contrabass music, for a mute suitable for use on the instrument would be an impossibility, weighing about two pounds. The neck is long, increasing the distances between the notes, but a good performer can produce many effects. Although the instrument had been extensively used in completing the harmony, Beethoven somewhat scandalized his contemporaries by scoring new effects for it. Its versatility has been greatly increased, and Kussewitsky, a modern virtuoso, can vary his tone from a full and almost thundering bass, to sounds that are most delicate and flute like. Where the strings are plucked, they sustain the full rich tone for a long time.

The tremolo is telling and dramatic, and the contrabass can amusingly burlesque the other stringed instruments.

CONTRABASS VIOL — See violone.

CONTRABASSOON — Double-Beating Reed. Europe. This member of the oboe family has a tube about sixteen feet in length, and sounds an octave below the bassoon. It is even able to reach B flat, next to the lowest note on the pianoforte. The instrument transposes an octave. Its voice is somewhat coarse and hard, but of fine effect under suit-able conditions. Rapid passages are not practicable, and the parts assigned to it in scores are in many instances interpreted upon the sarrusophone, which is gradually finding its way into the orchestra. Beethoven employs the contra-bassoon with telling effect in his ninth symphony and his mass in D, and Brahms makes most successful use of it in his symphony in C minor. Wagner employs the instrument notably in " Parsifal." See bassoon.

COR ANGLAIS — Double-Beating Reed. Europe. This instrument is regarded as the alto of the oboe family, although it is more properly a small bassoon. It stands in the key of F, a fifth below the oboe. It exactly resembles the oboe in its construction, scale and compass, and is the enlargement of that instrument by half. The name English horn is misleading, as the instrument is not a horn, nor did it originate in England. It is probably the corruption of a name referring to the curve or bend, which at one time occurred near the middle, although now the instrument is straight.

The tone possesses melancholy and somber qualities that cannot be found in any other instrument, and is less piercing and brilliant than that of the oboe. The cor anglais has a compass from E below middle C two octaves and one-fifth upward, and can give the intermediate semi-tones. The music is written in the G clef, a fifth higher than it sounds. Formerly the music appeared in the alto clef, and there was a difference of opinion among composers as to whether it was a transposing instrument. Bach treats the instrument as tenor, and denominates it taille de bassoon, taille meaning the tenor voice. In a less improved state the cor anglais was called the oboe da caccia, and it was referred to as such in the scores of the older composers. In the overture of Rossini's " Guillaume Tell " it imitates the alpine horn. Meyerbeer in " The Huguenots " and " Robert le Diable," Halιvy in "La Juive," and Gluck in " Orfeo," make use of it. Wagner in his music dramas, and orchestral composers following, have made free and effective use of this instrument. Beethoven, Schubert, Weber and Mendelssohn are among the composers who have never recognized the cor anglais. See oboe.

COR DE CHASSE, HUCHET — Cup Mouthpiece. French name for postilion's or huntsman's horn. See hunting horn. CORNO TORTO — See cornetto torto.

CORNEPYPE, CORNICYLL — See pibgorn.

CORNET — Cup Mouthpiece. Europe. The cornet, which has been adopted into many orchestras as a substitute for the trumpet, an instrument more difficult to play, has its more proper place in military bands, and in interpreting dance and popular music. It has a conical brass tube of wide bore, having a length of four and a half feet. The tube expands into a bell, and is fitted with three valves to extend the pitch. The cornet transposes downwards a tone. The instrument in B flat has a compass of two octaves and one-half, with E below middle C as the lowest note.

It is an instrument which can be played after a little study, and although it is rather versatile, the tone has few characteristic qualities, and tends toward coarseness rather than dignity. Its deep, cup-shaped mouthpiece affects the tone to a great extent, as also do the proportions of its tube and bell. The cornet cannot play double notes. In a few instances a cornet mouthpiece has been used with the tube of a trumpet in an effort to make use of the better qualities of both instruments. Rapid passages, trills, repeated notes, arpeggios, etc., can be given with ease, and the cornet is a good melody instrument.

CORNET A BOUQUIN — Cup Mouthpiece. Europe. The French name for zinken. See zinken.

CORNET-TROMPE — Cup Mouthpiece. Europe. This name was given by Sax to a hand horn which he invented. It was so shaped as to fit the body of the player, and was designed for portability, the tubing being coiled about the middle, greatly reducing the size. See hand horn.

CORNETTO CURVO — Cup Mouthpiece. Europe. Larger sized zinken with detachable mouthpiece. See zinken.

CORNETTO DIRITTO — Cup Mouthpiece. Europe. A small sized zinken, straight, and with mouthpiece detachable. See zinken.

CORNETTO MUTO - Name signifying a soft toned cornet. It was a small sized zinken, consisting of a straight tube with a non-detachable mouthpiece.

CORNETTO TORTO, CORNO TORTO — Cup Mouthpiece. Europe. Larger sized zinken with " S " shaped tube. Predecessor of the serpent. See serpent.

CORNICYLL — See pibgorn.

CORNO DI BASSETTO — See basset horn.

CORNO TORTO—See cornetto torto.

CORNOPEAN—Cup Mouthpiece. Europe. The name given to the earliest form of valved instruments, now called cornets.

CORNU — Cup Mouthpiece. Roman and Etruscan. The cornu was curved in a semicircle, and may be termed a bronze bugle. It is hardly distinguishable from the buccina, and without a doubt the names were interchangeable among the ancient writers. In the Metropolitan Museum of Art there is a copy of one of Etruscan origin which is displayed at the British Museum. Its pitch is D flat, about a minor third above that of the present infantry bugle. The cornu was held under the performer's arm, the broad end upwards over his shoulder.

COR OMNITONIQUE - Cup Mouthpiece. Europe. The name means diatonic orchestral horn. One of the many inventions of C. Sax, pθre, appearing in 1824. Instead of using crooks to change to the various keys, a graduated slide added or detached certain lengths of the tubing. A separate elbow of tubing bore a movable register, which the player could place upon a number representing the key in which he wished to play, and the correct length of tubing was immediately brought into connection with the mouth-piece.

CROMHORN -- See krumhorn.

CROWD -- See crwth.

CRUIT — Gallic term for violin or harp. Same as crwth or crowd, which see.

CRWTH, CROWD, CHROTTA — Bowed Strings. England. The oldest form of bowed instrument known in England. It was shaped a little like a lyre, having an extension in hoop form of the square sound box. In the center of the top of the hoop were the pegs. Through the center ran an unfretted finger-board, and over this were generally stretched four of the five or six strings, the others being just beside it and plucked by the right thumb. The sound holes were round. These instruments were very ancient, dating to four hundred years before Christ and were first mentioned about 609 A. D. by Venantius Fortunatus, Bishop of Poitiers. Crwth is the Welsh name, and crowd the English. The left foot of the bridge passes through one sound hole, and rests upon the back of the sound-board, fulfilling much the same duty as the sound-post on a violin. It is, in fact, an ancestor of the violin, and doubtless a descendant of the Irish cruit, which was plucked by the fingers, and which is claimed to have been mentioned by an Irish poet before the time of Christ.

CUCKOO — Vertical Flute. Europe. Two small pipes bound together and giving two notes resembling the call of the cuckoo.

CYMBALS — Sonorous Substances. Europe. Cylindrical plates of brass or bronze, thinner at the outer edge. They vary from the finger cymbals, an inch in diameter, to the large ones used in the orchestra and the band, measuring a foot or more in diameter. They originated in Arabia, and in Turkey, where the most successful are made, the composition of the metal being held a secret, however. They take a prominent place in the Janissary music, and were thence adopted by other military bands and by the orchestra.

The cymbals have, at their center, straps through which the hands are to be thrust. However, as they are often played by the bass drummer, one cymbal is usually fastened to that drum, and the other held in the drummer's left hand. Their duty is to mark time, and their effect is ringing and bright, but they are also used in uncanny and thrilling passages. Cymbals are not clashed together, center to center, as in that case the impact would doubtless cause them to break, but they are rubbed together with a sliding motion, that requires some skill. Wagner has taxed their repertory of effects, ordering a roll produced with a drum-stick upon one cymbal, a soft tremolo by rattling the two cymbals together gently and a gong imitation by a single strong stroke upon a hanging cymbal. He also uses them in the expression of combat or unrestrained revelry. Top of Page